ROMAN EMPEROR JULIUS CAESAR, (100 BC – 44 BC) WAS A BRILLIANT MILITARY GENERAL.HE SUCCESSFULLY CONQUERED GAUL ( FRANCE) AND TWICE INVADED BRITAIN IN 55 BC & 54 BC.CAESAR WAS ASSASSINATED IN 44 BC BY A LARGE GROUP OF ROMAN SENATORS.HE WAS APPARENTLY STABBED MORE THAN 20 TIMES.

So Caesar was a complex and contrary man. A brilliant politician, orator and poet. A living god that had endured the indignities of the down-trodden. A reckless politician who gambled everything for self- aggrandisement. He was also, conversely; a charming, perfumed dandy and a warrior with a steely resolution and great physical toughness. A seducer with great emotional intelligence that could out-manipulate everyone. A reformer that sought to break the power of the senate who would ultimately impose his will on his countrymen at any cost.

The Roman Republic founded in 480 BC gradually developed into a polity in which equality and democracy were highly esteemed values. During the Republic, the state was governed by the Senate which was composed of members of the leading families. Plenary sessions allowed the public at large to discuss topics that mattered to them. The executive power lied with the magistrates who were elected for a period of one year. They did not enjoy full power however as they always had to act in collaboration with their fellow magistrates.During the first century BC a series of alternate revolutionary and contra-revolutionary outbreaks, the so-called Roman Revolution, swept the realm. Civic wars partly resulting from an outspoken expansionism devastated Rome. The governing body was reorganized in order to serve the aims of one person, the emperor’s. It was Julius Caesar who linked Republican Rome to the Roman Empire.Julius Caesar, was a Roman politician and general who played a critical role in the events that led to the demise of the Roman Republic and the rise of the Roman Empire. He is also known as a notable author of Latin prose.Julius Caesar was born in Rome, on either the 12 or 13 of July in 100 B.C. Through a combination of political savvy, charisma and backhanded dealings, he quickly rose to power, becoming dictator of Rome in 49 B.C. after emerging victorious from a civil war. As dictator he instituted a number of reforms, from expanding who could be considered a Roman citizen to changing the Roman calendar.In 60 BC, Caesar, Crassus, and Pompey formed a political alliance that dominated Roman politics for several years. Their attempts to amass power as Populares were opposed by the Optimates within the Roman Senate, among them Cato the Younger with the frequent support of Cicero. Caesar's victories in the Gallic Wars, completed by 51 BC, extended Rome's territory to the English Channel and the Rhine. Caesar became the first Roman general to cross both the Channel and the Rhine, when he built a bridge across the Rhine and crossed the Channel to invade Britain.These achievements granted him unmatched military power and threatened to eclipse the standing of Pompey, who had realigned himself with the Senate after the death of Crassus in 53 BC. With the Gallic Wars concluded, the Senate ordered Caesar to step down from his military command and return to Rome. Caesar refused the order, and instead marked his defiance in 49 BC by crossing the Rubicon with the 13th Legion, leaving his province and illegally entering Roman Italy under arms. Civil war resulted, and Caesar's victory in the war put him in an unrivalled position of power and influence.Caesar was born into one of noblest clans. In fact so distinguished was his family that he felt that everyone else was beneath him. He was reputedly descended from Venus and Aeneas and so he was divine in his lineage. Perhaps this was one of the reasons he displayed almost singular self-confidence. His family however had fallen on hard times and their coffers were empty. Their home was located in the Suburra, a crowded slum and red-light district. Caesar felt this humiliation keenly and it fuelled his burning ambition. It was one of several reasons he aligned himself to the Populares ( leaders that relied on the people  rather than the Optimates an oligarchy of wealthy nobles. At around 134 BC Rome entered a period of great political and social upheaval that would eventually herald the end of the Republic and the rise of empire. Two great Roman generals Sulla  and Gaius Marius (Caesar's uncle) rose to power and sought to stamp their authority on their city and country.Sulla eventually prevailed and declared himself dictator and it was this act that was to have ramifications down through the centuries. It showed that a powerful man with Rome's army at his back was the most powerful entity in the state and not the senate and aristocracy which had traditionally been the seat of power in the republic.Sulla, having obliterated many vestiges of the existing political framework then showed himself to be a true conservative by restoring power to the senate and limiting the power of the tribunes. He had murdered thousands of his rich opponents in the Marian faction during his prescriptions and Caesar's name was on his hit list. Caesar fled Rome and only returned once he had received a pardon through his relatives. Even at this early stage Sulla, with astute foresight, was able to foresee the ambition and populist tendencies that Caesar possessed and warned those around him to be wary about this young upstart.Caesar in return learnt from Sulla that absolute power was attainable and it would be most easily achieved through military conquest and close allegiance with the army.So Caesar's political career began during a time of upheaval where some of the most interesting events in Rome's history occurred and its titanic figures were jockeying for power.These were men who were brilliant, brutally ambitious, intelligent, manipulative, charming and charismatic and whose destinies would become inextricably linked to one another. For an era to have included one of these men would have made interesting reading, but in their allegiances and opposing wrangles they created a political world of high drama that still bears traces to this day. All of them eventually found themselves powerless to resist the unbending will of Caesar and Pompey and Cato would ultimately lose their lives fighting against Caesar's forces.In 54 BCE, Caesar invaded Britain again. He defeated the chief of a British tribe, Cassivellaunus, in a battle near modern London and crossed the Thames. Caesar took a fortress near St. Albans and received tribute. Some scientific experiments were carried out in Essex: from measurements with a water clock, Caesar's explorators learned that the nights in Britain were shorter than on the continent. After this expedition, winter quarters were build among the Belgians.

Julius Caesar's legions in Gallic war ,In the middle of 55 b.c.e. he planned an invasion of Britain. Caesar’s army marched to the river Thames and defeated a large force, capturing the fort of King Cassivelaunus and then returned to Gaul. Caesar’s strong political power base was waning, however, and his alliance with Pompey was weakening. Crassus received command of the eastern armies but was defeated by the Parthians, and he died in the battle.

Caesar joined the army and left Rome, and became an aide of the governor of Asia. There he was involved in a military victory against Mithradates VI, king of Pontus. In this action he was awarded the corona civica, or Civic Crown, one of the highest Roman military decorations. Sulla retired as dictator and died in 78 b.c.e. Julius Caesar returned to Rome at this time. Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, a close ally of his, had attempted a failed coup against the Sullan government. Julius Caesar sailed to Rhodes to study in 75 b.c.e. He was captured by pirates and ransomed for 50 talents of gold. Later, Caesar crucified the pirates. After this he again led an army against the king of Pontus. He went on to Rhodes to study under Apollonius Molo, who had taught Cicero.Caesar returned to Rome in 72 b.c.e., where he was elected as a military tribune. He then became quaestor and prepared to fulfill this position with the army in Hispania (Spain) in 69 b.c.e. He served as quaestor in western Hispania and returned to Rome and married Pompeia, the granddaughter of Sulla. He was elected aedile. After this Caesar was then elected pontifex maximus, the chief priest of Roman. He was elected praetor in 62 b.c.e. He was appointed propraetor in 61 b.c.e. and left Rome to govern Hispania Ulterior (Furthest Spain). In western Hispania he led the conquest of the Callaici and Lusitani people. His army hailed him as imperator, and he entered Rome in triumph. Caesar wanted to be consul, which was the highest office in the Republic, and entered Rome to run for consul in 60 b.c.e.In his campaign for consul of Rome, Caesar allied himself to Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (Pompey the Great), a formidable military figure with a long-term goal to get free land for his veterans to settle. Marcus Licinius Crassus, said to be the richest man in all of Rome, joined them in a three-person political alliance for power. Caesar provided the political skills, Pompey the influence, and Crassus the money. To cement the alliance, Pompey married Caesar’s only daughter, Julia. In the same year Caesar married Calpurnia, the daughter of Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus, who would be elected consul the year after. Their political opponents called their powerful political alliance “the three-headed monster.” This was the First Triumvirate. In 59 b.c.e. Caesar won as consul, but his opposition, Bibulus, won the other co-consul position. Caesar turned Pompey’s measures into law and pushed Crassus’s interests. Caesar became proconsul of Gaul in 58 b.c.e. His Gallic Wars lasted from 58 to 49 b.c.e. Caesar began with a lightning campaign in Helvetii (modern-day Switzerland). The following year he conquered the Belgic confederacy (in modern-day Belgium) and the Nervii. Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus met in Caesar’s province in 56 b.c.e. to renew their Triumvirate. By now Caesar had taken great riches in battle from the Gauls. By the end of 56 b.c.e. he had decided to annex all of Gaul (modern-day France). Pompey and Crassus would be consuls the following year and promised to extend his proconsulship of Gaul for five more years. With this Caesar became even more ambitious.Julius Caesar was appointed by the Roman Senate as proconsul for Gaul, for which he was given 4 legions. the ambitious Caesar, a military ingenue, had little idea of how lucky he was going to be as he was in usually everything he did  because, within a short space of a few years, after coming to the rescue of the Gauls against incursions from Germanic tribes to the east, Caesar himself decided to bring the rest of the barbarian tribes under the domain of Republican Rome and, at the same time, increase his visibility among the Roman people.From a military point of view it was an immense achievement, one that fueled Roman imperialist feelings like no other war. For the Gauls it meant subjugation. For the gamer, it means six battles of Pure Excitement.Gaul as a whole consisted of a multitude of states of different ethnic origin. In the late Iron Age, their different cultures had started to resemble each other, largely by processes of trade and exchange. The Greeks and Romans called all these nations Celts or Gauls. In the fourth century, Gallic warriors had settled along the Po and had invaded Central Italy (even capturing Rome in July 387). Most people in Italy were afraid of new Gallic invasions.In the second century, mass migrations from Germanic tribes had started, for reasons that remain unclear to us.  Marius had defeated some of their tribes, the Teutones and the Cimbri, but in Caesar's days it was probably not a gross exaggeration to say that the states of Gaul would have to become Roman or would be overrun by Germans, who would proceed to attack Italy. If the Romans were afraid of the Gauls, they were terrified of the Germans.Originally, it was not Caesar's intention to attack Gaul, but Rumania, which was rich in precious metals. In the spring of 58 BCE, Caesar's legions were already in the eastern parts of his province: the Seventh, the Eighth, the Ninth and especially the Tenth, which was called 'the knights' and was very dear to Caesar.However, the migration of the Helvetians, a coalition of tribes in modern Switzerland, forced him to think about at least one or two campaigns in the north. The Helvetians had migrate to the south-west of France and had to cross through Roman territories. This was unacceptable to any Roman governor.For Caesar, it was a golden opportunity to impress the Senate and People's Assembly. Besides, there were reports about Germans that were attacking the Aedui, a Gallic tribe in the valley of the Saône that was allied to Rome. A victory over the Germans would place him on the same rank as his uncle Marius. This is exactly what happened.Caesar's military base was the valley of the lower Rhône, which had been Roman from 123 onwards. However, his legions were still in the eastern part of his province. Therefore, in March 58, Caesar destroyed the bridge at Geneva and blocked the road along the Rhône, which served to slow down the Helvetian advance. This action gave Caesar sufficient time to lead his army across the Alps and to recruit two extra legions (Eleven and Twelve). The Helvetians now choose to leave their country in the neighborhood of modern Basel, but when they wanted to cross the Saône in July, Caesar was ready to defeat them, and he defeated them again in August in the neighborhood of the capital of the Aedui, Bibracte.After these victories, some Gauls asked Caesar to help them pushing back the Suebians, a Germanic tribe that had crossed the Rhine and settled in Alsace. Again, Caesar was victorious - the battle took place in September in the neighborhood of modern Colmar - and winter quarters were built near the battle field, in modern Besançon.Caesar ought to have taken his armies back to the south; letting them stay at Besançon was a deliberate provocation. But Caesar had by now changed his mind: he now set out to conquer all of Gaul. After his successes, it seemed easy. And he was not blind to trade: the Rhône-Saône-Rhine corridor was the most important trade route in pre-industrial Europe, with amber and slaves being among the most important commodities. He could open new markets for the Mediterranean traders; a taste for Roman luxuries had already started in the Gallic states along the Rhône and Saône. British tin was traditionally transported along the rivers Garonne and Seine: an additional bonus.In Caesar's propaganda, this was a preventive war. He spent the winter in Cisalpine Gaul, having an eye on the city of Rome and giving instructions to Piso. And he wrote the first part of his Commentary on the war in Gaul, which had two purposes: he could boast about his successes, and he could explain why he had to attack the rest of Gaul. It was successful: no Roman ever asked if it was really necessary to conquer these vast territories.The Gallic tribes were aware of the danger. During the winter, the northern tribes, which are usually called Belgians, formed an anti-Roman coalition. This was exactly what Caesar needed: now he had an extra excuse to conquer all states in Gaul.Now that all Gaul had at least nominally submitted to Rome, Caesar spent the winter in Illyricum, but when he had crossed the Alps, the Gauls from Brittany rose against the Romans (56 BCE). Caesar ordered ships to be built, and spent some time in Italy, where he met Pompey and Crassus in Lucca (April 56; text): the triumvirs decided to continue their conspiracy against the Roman republic and agreed that Caesar's generalship in Gaul would be prolonged until 50, December 31. This was an extraordinary command, and Caesar's fellow-conspirators demanded in return Caesar's support to be consuls in the next year, 55. Caesar agreed, and having secured his position, he crossed the Alps and in the summer, in the Bay of Quiberon, a naval battle took place, in which the Bretons were defeated. Caesar's colonels took charge of mopping up expeditions along the coast of the Atlantic Ocean.

The Triumphs of Caesar (below) are a series of nine large paintings by the Italian renaissance painter Andrea Mantegna. They were painted between 1486 and 1505 for the Ducal Palace, Mantua. They depict the triumphal military procession of Julius Caesar celebrating his victory in the Gallic Wars.Julius Caesar had returned to Rome in triumph, hailed as a hero. During his time as a Roman general, he claimed to have killed almost two million people in fifty decisive battles. Although loved by the citizens of Rome, he caused, in many ways, worry among those in the Roman Senate - especially the old elite, the Optimates.

When Julius Caesar returned to Rome in 46 BCE, among his triumphs was the first naumachia or mock sea battle (although the life-and-death struggle certainly was real enough to those who were forced to participate). It took place on a water-filled basin constructed in the Campus Martius, a low-lying area in a bend of the river Tiber.Rome doesn't want for famous residents from artists to politicians, many notables have called the city home. But, arguably, none changed its course more than Julius Caesar, the shrewd military leader and politician who greatly expanded the Roman Empire and eventually become its self-appointed dictator, paving the way for the imperial system.But the fact that Caesar had not returned home at once had given Pompey's sons enough time to raise new armies. Two more campaigns were needed, in Africa and Spain, culminating in the battle of Munda on 17 March 45 BC. In October of that year Caesar was back in Rome. Quickly it showed that Caesar was not merely a conqueror and destroyer. Caesar was a builder, a visionary statesman, the likes of which the world rarely gets to see.He established order, begun measures to reduce congestion in Rome, draining large tracts of marshy lands, gave full voting rights to the inhabitants of his former province south of the Alps, revised the tax laws of Asia and Sicily, resettled many Romans in new homes in the Roman provinces and reformed the calendar, which, with one slight adjustment.Pompey, Crassus and Caesar formed the First Triumvirate (60 BC). This was more than a mere election compact. Together they ruled Rome and strove to obtain long-term command. Especially Julius Caesar was very ambitious. In 53 BC, one of the triumvirs, Crassus suffered disastrous defeat and death in his battle against the Parthians. From this moment onwards Pompey became Caesar’s main rival. Money had to help Caesar to convince as many sympathisers and followers to side with him and his ideal of freedom to the people. His opponent who advocated freedom to the Senate apparently misjudged the situation and had to flee the city. Both parties exchanged several peace proposals but neither of them led to a compromise. In the end, they were nothing more than mere propaganda. After leaving Rome for Greece, Pompey planned to surround Caesar’s troops in Italy. When Caesar returned to Rome and conquered the city he suddenly decided to send some troops to Spain to thwart his opponent Pompey. Caesar attained his goal and returned to Rome to be promoted dictator, be it only for a very short period of eleven days. Mutiny broke out as the soldiers did not see anything of the promised loot. Thanks to his ability and the lack of other valuable potential leaders, Ceasar remained in power. He decided to send his troops to Greece to fight Pompey’s army. Pompey suffered a disastrous defeat and fled to Egypt where he treacherously got killed in 48 BC. Julius Caesar obtained a one year dictatorship and to consolidate his power he further engaged in warfare. By the end of December 47 BC he defeated Cato, his republican opponent. When this news spread to Rome the City payed tribute to the triumphant general and they offered him dictatorship for a period of no less than ten years.With hindsight one might say that he was a reasonable statesman. He did not introduce arbitrary changes to the governing bodies nor proved the laws he enacted to be irrational. Caesar himself was convinced that he pulled the strings but in the meantime a group of frustrated senators were after revenge. The well-prepared conspiracy culminated 15 March 44 BC when Caesar succumbed to no less than 23 stab wounds. With Caesar ends the Roman Republic and his successor becomes the first of a long series of Roman Emperors. Many of them wanted to follow in his footsteps but none of them has ever been able to match his glory.Caesar knew that if he were to rise rapidly through the dawdling political institution that was the Roman senate it would be a slow and painful business. He despised the senate for its conservatism, its regressive and archaic policies and philosophical outlook. He wanted to modernize Rome, he wanted to extend the citizenship and spread Roman culture, to create a super-state and an empire. Most importantly he wanted to be the first man in Rome and so he began his great gamble which was monstrous in its scope and vision. Many, equally ambitious men in Rome could not have foreseen or would have dreamt of treading such a perilous path but then very few people are born with such a multiplicity of talents.A scenario early in his career illustrates perfectly Caesar's courage and self-belief. Whilst sailing to Greece he had been captured by pirates and upon learning how much they had ransomed him for was disgusted and told them haughtily that it was not nearly enough. Later, during his captivity one night he was writing poetry below decks when their raucous partying upstairs eventually got on his nerves. He went up and told them to shut -up and then casually asked them what they thought of his poetry. They were absolutely astonished at his arrogance and suggested that they could easily crucify him whenever they wanted. Caesar coolly replied that in fact it was he who would return and capture each one of them and crucify them. They laughed. He did indeed return and fulfil his promise.

Julius Caesar, who essentially the dictator of Rome in Cleopatra's time, arrived in Egypt during the civil war between Cleopatra and her brother. Caesar came to claim the debts Egypt owed Rome as to have been strategic, romantic. For his part Caesar made little mention of Cleopatra in his account of the Alexandrine wars. Whether it was the beauty of Cleopatra, the fact that she was a direct descendant of Alexander the Great, her courage or her charisma which charmed Caesar from this point (or shortly after) they became lovers.

Plutarch records that before Julius Caesar had even landed in Egypt Theodotus, the tutor of Ptolemy XIII, sailed out to meet him with the severed head of Pompey. This was intended to curry favour with Caesar and encourage him to set sail for Rome immediately with his business in Egypt being finished, but it had the opposite effect. Caesar was absolutely furious at the cowardly murder of Pompey who was, of course, his son-in-law. It is possible that he intended to show mercy to Pompey (as he did to many of his enemies) as Plutarch suggested that he wept openly and then took measures to protect the head until a proper burial could be arranged, however, Dio suggests that Caesar did intend to kill Pompey but was dismayed that it had been undertaken in such a manner and on the orders of a foreigner and perhaps exaggerated his grief for political effect. Either way it hardened his feelings against Ptolemy XIII.Caesar announced his intention to execute Ptolemy Auletes will (under which Cleopatra was co-regent with Ptolemy XIII). Pothinus, the ever present guardian of Ptolemy XIII and the real power behind his throne, stirred the Alexandrian mob up against Caesar but Caesar was not easily frightened. He landed with a small force and made his way to the palace. He insisted that Ptolemy and Cleopatra dismiss their armies and reminded Pothinus that the heirs of Ptolemy Auletes owed him 6000 talents (a large sum of money). Pothinus resented any challenge to his authority (he was acting chancellor and so controlled Egypt's finances) and was openly insolent to Caesar - doing untold damage to the cause of his ward Ptolemy. Cleopatra was determined to make the most of Pothinus' miscalculation and managed to arrange a secret meeting with Caesar. Plutarch tells the famous tale of how Cleopatra was hidden in a role of carpet (or sleeping bag depending on the translation) which was unrolled to reveal her in all her glory. However, it is suggested by some authorities that she was in fact simply veiled which is perhaps more likely.Whether it was the beauty of Cleopatra, the fact that she was a direct descendant of Alexander the Great, her courage or her charisma which charmed Caesar from this point (or shortly after) they became lovers. Caesar immediately reversed the decision of Pompey and reinstated Cleopatra as co-ruler with her brother. When Ptolemy XIII arrived for a meeting with Caesar he found his sister relaxing on a couch in his chambers and flew into a fit of rage. He burst out of the palace screaming that he had been betrayed and tried to rouse the Alexandrian mob against Caesar and Cleopatra. However, ever the great orator, Caesar calmed the crowd by producing the will of Ptolemy Auletes decreeing that the siblings should rule together and by naming their younger siblings (Ptolemy XIV and Arsinoe) as the rulers of Rhodes (which Rome had recently recaptured). Returning Rhodes to the Egyptians was by no means a popular move with the Roman people, but it bought Caesar time, ensured the gratitude of Cleopatra and undermined the attempts of Pothinus and Ptolemy XIII to stir up rebellion.Just when all appeared lost, the first of Caesar's reinforcements arrived and after a fierce battle they took the Great Lighthouse and the causeway linking it to the palace . Just when all appeared lost, the first of Caesar's reinforcements arrived and after a fierce battle they took the Great Lighthouse and the causeway linking it to the palace . When a further wave of forces led by the Prince of Pergamon arrived to support Caesar Ptolemy was forced to head south to meet them. Caesar led his troops out in pursuit forming a pincer with his ally from Pergamon and following a bitter fight Ptolemy was defeated and drowned in the Nile. Caesar retrieved his body and set out for Alexandria to tell Cleopatra the good news. She met him, no doubt dressed as her favoured goddess Isis at the head of a great procession of sacred emblems and gods. Caesar established her younger brother Ptolemy XIV as her co-ruler to secure her throne and then married Cleopatra in the Egyptian manner (although this marriage was not recognised in Rome as he was already married and it was not legal for a Roman citizen to marry a foreigner). They embarked on a honeymoon cruise down the Nile which was both a chance for her to show Caesar Egypt and to confirm to the people that she was fully in charge. It may also have been intended as a pilgrimage to Edfu where the connection between her son, Caesarion, and Horus could be established and his destiny as the future ruler of Egypt assured.When a further wave of forces led by the Prince of Pergamon arrived to support Caesar Ptolemy was forced to head south to meet them. Caesar led his troops out in pursuit forming a pincer with his ally from Pergamon and following a bitter fight Ptolemy was defeated and drowned in the Nile. Caesar retrieved his body and set out for Alexandria to tell Cleopatra the good news. She met him, no doubt dressed as her favoured goddess Isis at the head of a great procession of sacred emblems and gods. Caesar established her younger brother Ptolemy XIV as her co-ruler to secure her throne and then married Cleopatra in the Egyptian manner (although this marriage was not recognised in Rome as he was already married and it was not legal for a Roman citizen to marry a foreigner). They embarked on a honeymoon cruise down the Nile which was both a chance for her to show Caesar Egypt and to confirm to the people that she was fully in charge. It may also have been intended as a pilgrimage to Edfu where the connection between her son, Caesarion, and Horus could be established and his destiny as the future ruler of Egypt assured.Caesar's colonial policy, combined with his generosity in granting citizenship to individuals and communities, was to rejuvenate both the Roman legions and the Roman governing class. And Caesar, who included some provincial aristocrats in his enlarged Senate, was perfectly aware of what he was doing.But despite the pardons he granted to his old senatorial enemies, despite not drowning Rome in blood like Sulla and Marius had done, when they had seized power, Caesar failed to win over his enemies.Worse still, many Romans feared that Caesar was going to make himself king. And Rome still held an old hatred to its ancient kings. Many saw their fears only confirmed as Cleopatra with her son Caesarion was brought to Rome. Was Rome perhaps the most cosmopolitan place in the world of that day, it still didn't take kindly to foreigners, the people of the east in particular. And so Cleopatra had to leave again. The power of Julius Caesar Death was at its highest. He had enraged noble Patricians with his relationship with Cleopatra and was considering divorcing his wife Calpurnia to marry her. But his keeping the dictatorship was the real grievance, and the remains of the old party in the Senate could not bear that the patrician freedom of Rome should be lost. Every now and then his flatterers offered him a royal crown and hailed him as king, though he always refused it and this title still stirred up bitter hatred. He was preparing an army intending to march into the far East, where no one but Alexander had gone before. His plans were known and if he came back victorious no one would be able to stand against him. The noble Patricians of Ancient Rome decided to take the most drastic of actions - they planned to murder Julius Caesar and assassinate him in the Senate.Everybody in the city knew Caesar possessed none of the riches needed for such largesse and must be borrowing heavily from creditors or someone with unusual personal wealth. It was around this period that Caesar formed a union with Marcus Licinius Crassus the richest man in Rome and Pompey the Great – the powerful general , to create the first Triumvirate. This alliance of populists was beneficial for each man as the other two would not oppose their attempts at political reform. It was also a sign to their enemies displaying their collaborative power. Although Caesar was by far the junior partner his energy, oratorical powers and skill as a manipulative politician soon placed him as an equal. In fairly short order he also bribed his way into the role of Pontifex Maximus  which increased his power and made his person inviolable.Having secured a power base in Rome Caesar soon had to pay off his creditors. He owed millions to a variety of sources and one of the few methods to gain vast fortunes were during military campaign through the overthrow of foreign lands.Caesar did not have a mandate to wage war in Gaul but merely to govern. This was never going to stop him reaching his goals however and on the fairly flimsy pretext that the Helvetii were migrating to new pasture in huge numbers he declared war.By this point in his career Caesar had created many enemies in Rome. They were angered by his corruption, brashness and autocratic leadership. Senatorial members such as Cato took every opportunity to denigrate his actions. He railed that Caesar had attacked and murdered innocent people, plundered lands and sought to overthrow the Republic. Caesar's power base had also been denuded by the disintegration of the triumvirate. Caesar's daughter had died in childbirth, leaving Pompey to marry again and Crassus had died ignominiously at the battle of Carrhae.At the start of his campaigns Caesar began his commentaries which acted as a clever piece of propaganda to defend his actions. In the hands of someone else these accounts might have been limp or overly self-regarding but Caesar created something of a masterpiece by presenting himself almost as bystander to these events which were seismic in scale and important to the Roman people .Caesar waged important wars against the Nervii and German barbarians during this period and also invaded Britain. This was a real eye-opener to Romans as Britain had a semi-mythical status amongst many, in fact some doubted its existence at all and here is Caesar battling Rome's greatest foes, the Germans, the Gauls and now to add extra fascination he is venturing into unknown lands. This information would have been sensational in Rome and so Caesar's commentaries became a very important tool for him and give us a unusually complete historical document and give the first real glimpse of some of these cultures, especially the Britons.There are many fascinating parts of these commentaries and his descriptions of the 'barbarians' reveal how terrifying ancient warfare was. How the Britons painted themselves blue, fought almost in the nude in all weather, used savage wars dogs in battles, could fire arrows whilst running along the tongue of their chariots. The Germans and Gauls were equally fearsome with their imposing height or their human sacrifice but they could not match the Roman war machine under a leader such as Caesar who was able to rally the to new levels of loyalty, obedience and aggression. His tenth legion in particular were known for their loyalty and bravery in battle.Caesar during these campaigns is apparently indefatigable as he moves with great rapidity through France, Germany, into Briton and back to France. In his commentaries he constantly refers to his speed. This ability to move from battle to battle, to set up camp, which were like well fortified towns and to battle and defeat tribe after tribe took its toll on the enemy and fear grew amongst some of the Gallic tribes that Caesar was some alien god.However several tribes, under a brutal new young leader Vercingetorix, put their differences aside temporarily to defeat their Roman nemesis. The culmination of this confederation was at the Battle Of Alesia. Vercingetorix managed, temporarily to pacify the squabbling between the various tribes and maintain strict military discipline. A man who was late for inspection might have his ear cut off or one eye gouged out. But the Gauls knew they needed an singularly vicious and brilliant leader to defeat Caesar.

Assassination of Julius Caesar,his brief reign came to a bloody end when he was stabbed by a group of Roman senators in Pompey's Theater on March 15, 44 B.C.The Senate rose in respect for his position when they saw him entering. Those who were to have part in the plot stood near him. Right next to him went Tillius Cimber, whose brother had been exiled by Caesar. Under pretext of a humble request on behalf of this brother, Cimber approached and grasped the mantle of his toga, seeming to want to make a more positive move with his hands upon Caesar. Caesar wanted to get up and use his hands, but was prevented by Cimber and became exceedingly annoyed.That was the moment for the men to set to work. All quickly unsheathed their daggers and rushed at him.

The assassination of Julius Caesar was the result of a conspiracy by many Roman senators. Led by Gaius Cassius Longinus, Decimus Junius Brutus, and Marcus Junius Brutus, they stabbed Julius Caesar to death in a location adjacent to the Theatre of Pompey on the Ides of March (March 15), 44 BC. Caesar was the dictator of the Roman Republic at the time, having recently been declared dictator perpetuo by the Senate. This declaration made several senators fear that Caesar wanted to overthrow the Senate in favor of tyranny. The conspirators were unable to restore the Roman Republic. The ramifications of the assassination led to the Liberators' civil war and, ultimately, to the Principate period of the Roman Empire.The battle of Alesia was so devastating to the Gauls that it snuffed out any further major resistance. Their greatest hope, Vercingetorix, had surrendered and was borne to Rome where he was later strangled.Caesar had now conclusively shown that he was a brilliant general whose troops showed an almost singular loyalty to. This was a worry for the senate and also to Pompey who until this point had been seen as Rome's greatest military hero.Within two years however, Caesar's enemies had grown increasingly desperate to prosecute him for a variety of misdemeanour’s including his governorship in Gaul. In truth he had grown too powerful, dangerous and was seeking even greater political accolades.So the two most powerful bulls in the herd came face to face, Pompey and Caesar. When Caesar, at the behest of the senate, did not disband his army and crossed the Rubicon river (a designated boundary that was forbidden to be crossed by a general with a standing army) Rome became descended into another civil war.As mighty as Pompey was, he too succumbed to Caesar's military might. He fled to Egypt and was beheaded at the behest of a rightly fearful Ptolemy. Caesar received his former friend and son-in-law's head in great sorrow and when presented his signet ring burst into tears. He saw all of this death and suffering as unnecessary, it was because those powerful men in the senate attempting to strip him of his Dignitas (dignity) that his hand had been forced and he had been forced to fight. He could never fully grasp why men such as Pompey, Cicero, Cato and Brutus opposed his attempts at political reform and megalomania so stubbornly and he offered them the hand of friendship many times when he could have dispatched them. But to a Roman, to accept the clemency of an enemy was almost more painful than death.With the dispatch of Pompey Caesar became what he had always secretly desired, the greatest man in Rome, a dictator like his former enemy Sulla. His ambition had delivered his greatest dreams and duly, many senators despised him for this, partly because it is what they all sought. In fact it was the core of the success of Rome itself, that ever burning human desire for individual greatness, glory and an eternal legacy.Over the following years, Caesar desired and was given ever greater titles and powers. He began the deep political and bureaucratic shake-up he had always dreamt of implementing. To break up the ancient aristocratic oligarchy that had made political change in Rome so slow and laborious. To do this he had to stamp his authority over government. Defeating Pompey had been the first and most important step. Caesar then promoted many of his supporters to the senate. This was one reason why Caesar constantly sought greater powers and titles. However, radically and rapidly changing a political that had existed for over 450 years was always going to be tendentious especially when it threatened many wealthy and powerful men. Politics has ever been a murky mess of complex allegiances and malleable morals. Threaten a man's livelihood and he might perform an about face and he might turn on you with savage brutality. In seizing the reins of power Caesar had shown remarkable clemency to those who had previously fought against him. People such as Marcus Brutus (possibly Caesar's illigitimate son) owed Caesar their lives but his forgiveness could not stem the hardening of resentments and jealousy in their hearts.By 44 BC Caesar had been appointed dictator for life and there were well founded rumours that he sought to be king over Rome. No word was more repellent to Romans than King. Although the republic's political system was flawed Romans had fought hard to dislodge their last tyrannical king Tarquinius Superbus. As much as the public loved Caesar, even they would balk at this notion.Men such as Marcus Brutus possessed a deep moral code that compelled them to fight for freedom and the future of the Republic. The senate voted to invest Caesar with the kingship outside Roman territory. On the evening before the event Caesars wife Calpurnia had several visceral dreams in which she saw his body mutilated and spouting blood. However to have finally reached his ultimate goal was too much for Caesar and he suppressed his anxieties and ventured down to the theatre of Pompey. On his journey to the theatre Caesar again saw the soothsayer and joked that the Ides Of March had come and the soothsayer shot back “aye Caesar, but not gone”By 44 BC up to 60 senators had joined a conspiracy to murder Caesar. Such a huge conspiracy was difficult to keep secret and Caesar had been informed of a plot against him by friends. Other ill omens also brought foreboding such as when he was warned by a soothsayer to beware the Ides Of March the forthcoming day of his murder. Mark Anthony was detained outside. Senators surrounded Caesar and Cimber quickly distracted him with a request which Caesar denied. Casca then stood forward and was the first to plunge his knife into Caesar. Caesar roared “Casca, you son of a bitch” and then the blows rained down on Caesar with such ferocity that many senators pierced each others hands with their knives. Although Caesar fought off his assailants with great courage when Brutus stepped forward and stabbed him in the groin Caesar's life force was snuffed out. He had been stabbed over 20 times and his assassins marched to Capitol shouting "People of Rome, we are once again free!"It would ultimately be his adopted son Octavian and Mark Anthony who would hunt down Caesars killers. Caesar's legacy lived on through Octavian and with the political reforms he had instigated. The republic had been smashed and Rome rose as an empire and unipolar super-power.Under the stewardship of Octavian the Western world entered a period of relative peace dominated by Roman culture. Internecine struggles were temporarily suppressed by Rome's quiet might and the sciences and arts flourished in a manner not seen again until the 20th Century.The different policies and philosophies as embodied by Cato and Caesar can be applied to many and time and time again people have chosen a Caesar.

Mark Antony‘s funeral speech for Julius Caesar,Throughout his speech, Antony calls the conspirators “honourable men” with his implied sarcasm becoming increasingly obvious. Antony begins by carefully rebutting the notion that his friend, Caesar deserved to die because he was ambitious, instead claiming that his actions were for the good of the Roman people, whom he cared for deeply.